Thursday, October 31, 2019
Childrens literature for the multicultural classroom Essay
Childrens literature for the multicultural classroom - Essay Example Aesop has been a mystery in the historical world, but much is known about the spread and conversion of his stories. Current literary scholarship has recognised fables as a major genre of Western literature. In the distant past fables went beyond the limitations of the classroom and the kindergarten. Their audiences have included children and adults. Yet fables are still an important genre of children’s literature. Their stories go back, repeatedly, to important events in childhood acquiring reading and writing skills and learning to follow a moral direction; besides their particular advises or home-grown morals, the fables impart principles of verbal action, concepts of readership, and insights of authorship. This essay talks about Aesop and his fables, as well as his contribution to children’s literature and relevance to the contemporary multicultural classroom. Aesop is believed to have been a creative writer of fables, wherein animals are bestowed with human language and characteristics, for the goal of showing a moral message. He was a well-known storyteller. As other fables were created and brought together, the talent of Aesop became tied to them. Even though several scholars believe that he is only a mythical or imaginary character, the following claims are most frequently recognised as historically factual in the ancient documents referring to Aesop: he was born in Thrace; he became a slave; he was poet Sappho’s contemporary in the 6th century B.C.; and he was well-known as a creator and narrator of tales. Aesop desired to see the Greek city, Delphi, late in his life. After giving his promise to go back to Babylon, he travelled to other cities and gave lectures of his education and knowledge. In Delphi, the people enjoyed hearing his stories in the beginning, but they did not give him anything. After Aesop mocked the citizens of Delphi by saying that they
Tuesday, October 29, 2019
Training on Conflict resolution strategies in Team Dynamics Essay Example for Free
Training on Conflict resolution strategies in Team Dynamics Essay The necessity of this training            Disagreements with how one sees life situations are just a few of the reasons that conflicts happen so ordinarily. Just as conflicts are also integral parts of daily existence so does negotiating through them (Amason, 1996; Amason, Thompson, Hochwarter, Harrison, 1995). Studies reveal that there is â€Å"no one size fits all†when it comes to navigating the disagreements and weather through storms where conflicts are concerned. However, there are principles that are observed when successful conflict management has taken place. Conflicts therefore must be confronted and understood at the individual level where a person experiences inner personal struggles at varying degrees. However, a short training tackles in detail a much larger picture as it attempts to provide a succinct look at conflict resolution strategies in the area of team dynamics by examining, describing and explaining various concepts as to the understanding of these significant concepts. Objectives for the training of communication To understand the nature of conflict as it arises in individual situations and in teams. Individual personal conflicts are inevitable occurrences that are usually taken for granted because of its â€Å"ordinariness.†Unless people undertakes a formal study on conflict management, he/she goes through life hitting and missing (at most) at ways of resolving issues and inner conflicts and in all probabilities, somehow manages to escape conflicts. The following important features in team dynamics are specifically indicated and described because these are crucial points in developing effective management of conflicts and developing efficient team dynamics. To reap the Benefits of working teams in relationship to conflict resolution strategies            Working teams in relationship to conflict resolution strategies provide benefits including personal and team growth as team members acquire insights with relationships and how these relationships are utilized to better reach worthwhile goals. In addition, working teams have optional choices rather than solitary attempts at confronting conflicts, such as higher possibility arriving at the solutions of the problems, promoting cohesiveness among the team, and increasing the involvement or participation of members. To identify the different Types of Conflict            Based on the study presented by Johnson (2005), few researches actually â€Å"describe how to identify conflict.†There are seven types of conflicts depending on â€Å"who is in conflict with whom†(Fisher et al, 1995; in Johnson, 2005). These are:            ~an individual with inner conflicts totally unrelated to the team but whose best performance for the team is not achieved due to the personal problem, thus influencing the whole team            ~two distinct members are in direct conflict with each other            ~one against all members            ~all against one member            ~a lot of members against a lot of others as well            ~one whole team as against another team            ~all of the team as against one person not a part of the team. To explain ways of Managing, preparing or preventing Conflict            Since conflict and disagreements are integral to the growth and performance of teams, it is therefore necessary that individual members and as a group, go through an education process to understand the nuances of conflict. They necessitate the learning to distinguish what healthy debates are, brainstorming and normal exchange of ideas which are important to team achieving corporate goals (Johnson, 2005). Studies by Tjosvold and colleagues (1999) show that when disagreements are brought into the open and talked about, conflicts are minimized and feelings of frustration, anger and doubts or suspicions are abated. Solutions to conflict            Employing a conflict checklist can be an excellent ingredient as well in resolving and minimizing the incidence of conflict. III. Identify Types of Instructional methods you will use and why            The best method that will be used is the seminar-workshop type which showcases the sort of brief lecture/discussion type followed by a question and answer portion. The workshop aspect will be the demonstration on activities that will enhance closeness of the relational and emotional aspect of the team’s association and promote self-understanding and self-awareness as well. Team communication and conflict are best understood when games and activities are tied up or incorporated as part of the challenge that the group will undertake. Discuss how you would tie the training into performance.            After the discussion of the lecture on conflict and strategies that are going to be developed by individuals and groups, it is expected that these are skills that are not learned overnight. However, there are expectations that the insights must be applied during the next few days or weeks. The kind of training that is illustrated here is expected to be clearly applicable and transferable wherever the participants maybe. Training for conflict resolution strategies in team dynamics will not be that easy but the determination must be there for the participants to see real results.     References Amason, A. C. (1996). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 39(1), 123-148. Amason, A. C., Thompson, K. R., Hochwarter, W. A., Harrison, A. W. (1995). Conflict: An important dimension in successful management teams. Organizational Dynamics, 24(2), 20-35. Bens, I. (1997). Facilitating conflict. In M. Goldman (Ed.), Facilitating with ease! (pp. 83-108). Sarasota, FL: Participative Dynamics. Davison, Sue Canney. 2003. Creating Working Normas and Agreements. Accessed May 25, 2008 www.genderdiversity.cgiar.org/CreatingWorkingAgreementsDavison3.doc Fisher, K., Rayner, S., Belgard, W. (1995). Tips for teams: A ready reference for solving common team problems. NY, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Jennsen, O., Van De Vliert, E., Veenstra, C. (1999). How task and person conflict shape the role of positive interdependence in management teams. Journal of Management, 25(2), 117-141. Johnson, Debbi-Wagner. 2005. Managing Work-Team Conflict: Assessment and Preventatve Strategies. Center for Collaborative Organizations, University of North Texas. All rights reserved. Rayeski, E., Bryant, J. D. (1994). Team resolution process: A guideline for teams to manage conflict, performance, and discipline. In M. Beyerlein M. Bullock Tjosvold, D., Morshima, M., Belsheim, J. A. (1999). Complaint handling on the shop floor: Cooperative relationships and open-minded strategies. International Journal of Conflict Management, 10(1), 45-68.
Sunday, October 27, 2019
Classroom Management and Discipline
Classroom Management and Discipline Nowadays, lot of teachers in our country are facing problem in managing their classrooms in schools. Â Perhaps the single most important aspect of teaching is classroom management. The students are described to be different and some of them tend to act superior to the school management system, even to the teachers. They show less respect to the teachers, refuse to get involve in the learning sessions and even misbehaving in the schools. In order to make sure the learning environment go well, the teachers have to come up with certain guidelines in managing their classrooms. Classroom management is a term used by teachers to describe the process of ensuring that classroom lessons run smoothly despite disruptive behavior by students. The term also implies for the prevention of disruptive behavior. It is possibly the most difficult aspect of teaching for many teachers, indeed for some who experiencing these kind of problems already leave the teaching profession altogether. This problem is not only faced by our local teaches but it is believed to be happening world wide. In the year of 1981, the US National Educational Association reported that 36% of teachers said they would probably not go into teaching if they had to decide again. A major reason was negative student attitudes and discipline.(Wolfgang and Glickman). According to Moskowitz Hayman (1976), once a teacher loses control of their classroom, it becomes increasingly more difficult for them to regain that control. Also, a research from Berliner (1988) and Brophy Good (1986) shows that the time that teacher has to take to correct misbehavior caused by poor classroom management skills results in a lower rate of academic engagement in the classroom. From the students perspective, effective classroom management involves clear communication of behavioral and academic expectations, as well as a cooperative learning environment (Allen 1986). Classroom management is related to issues of motivation, discipline and respect. Many teachers establish rules and procedures at the beginning of the school year in order to control the students. According to Gootman (2008), rules give students concrete direction to ensure that our expectation becomes a reality. They also try to be consistent in enforcing these rules and procedures. Many would also argue for positive consequences when rules are followed, and negative consequences when rules are broken. Sometimes, this application is working in order to manage the classroom effectively but at the same time, failure also happens. Classroom Management and Discipline Classroom management is the reflection of the learning environment of a group of individuals within a classroom setting. A teachers classroom-management system communicates information about the teachers beliefs on content and the learning process. It also represents the kinds of instruction that will take place in a particular classroom. A classroom in which the teacher is completely responsible to guide the students actions by encouraging ands teaching them to be responsible for their own behaviors. The nature of classroom management and classroom instruction is especially easy to be seen and understood from a student perspective. Students have at least two cognitive demands on them at all times: academic task demands which is understanding and working with conten and also social task demands by interacting with others concerning that content. This means that students must try to understand the content and find appropriate and effective ways to participate in order to demonstrate t hat understanding to the teacher and the whole class. The teacher must facilitate the learning of these academic and social tasks. Therefore, the students perspective on the need to be successful, management and instruction cannot be separated. A teacher needs to cater all actions in order to create, implement, and maintain a learning environment within the classroom. Everything a teacher does has implications for classroom management, including creating the setting, decorating the room, arranging the chairs, speaking to children and handling their responses, putting routines in place, developing rules, and communicating those rules to the students. These are all aspects of classroom management: Creating a Learning Environment Creating and implementing a learning environment means careful planning for the start of the school year. The learning environment must be supervised in both physical space and cognitive space. The physical space of the classroom is managed as the teacher prepares the classroom for the students. These questions should be entertained by the teachers Is the space warm and inviting? Does the room arrangement match the teachers philosophy of learning? Do the students have access to necessary materials? Are the distracting features of a room eliminated?. It helps a lot.Teachers must also consider the cognitive space necessary for a learning environment. Effective teachers create and implement classroom management practices that cultivate effective classroom environment for their students. Setting Expectations The establishment of the teachers expectations should be expressed through rules and procedures. Rules indicate the expectations for behavior in the classroom, and procedures have to do with how things get done. Rules can be developed with the students helps in the classroom. The teacher must have the knowledge on which rules and procedures should be used for different environment. It is proven by certain researchers that students who demonstrates high task engagement and academic achievement implement a systematic approach toward classroom management at the beginning of the school year by the teachers. Therefore, one of the critical aspects of managing classrooms effectively, or managing classrooms in ways to enhance student learning, is setting expectations. Motivational Climate An essential part of organizing the classroom is to encourage students to do their best and to be excited about what they are learning. There are two factors that are critical in creating such a motivational climate which are value and effort. To be motivated, students must see the outcomes of the work that they are doing and the work others do. Effort ties the time, energy, and creativity a student uses to develop the the works hold. Teachers also can encourage the students by praising them verbally. It can motivates them to learn more. Maintaining a Learning Environment Classroom management also involves maintaining the learning environment through decision-making concerning students and the classroom. Maintaining a learning environment requires teachers to actively monitor their students. Active monitoring includes watching student behavior closely, correcting inappropriate behavior before its getting worse, dealing consistently with misbehavior, and attending to student learning. In terms of monitoring both student behavior and learning, effective teachers regularly survey their class or group and watch for signs of student confusion or inattention. Maintaining effective management involves keeping an eye out for when students appear to have problems in any field while learning. When Problems Occur Though effective teachers anticipate and monitor students behavior and learning, misbehavior and misunderstanding do occur. When inappropriate behavior occurs, they have to handle it promptly to keep it from continuing and spreading. Depending on the seriousness of the missbehaviors, teachers have to use different techniques to cater them. When students have problem academically, the teachers have to make sure the objectives are clearly given, precise instructions for assignments, and appropriate responds to students questions. In order to create and support a learning-centered environment, students must be very comfortable and feel that their contributions are valued. In addition, students must know how to value the contributions of others, value the diversity within the classroom, and give their best effort because they see it as the right thing to do or something that they want to do. In each classroom there will be a variety of skills, backgrounds, languages, and levels of cooperation. Teachers need to have experiences and skills to teach diverse classes, along with the administrative support in schools. There are many philosophies and styles of discipline applied by different teachers in the whole wide world. It can be hard to decide what works best for a particular teacher. What works for one teacher may not work for another. The best thing a teacher can do is to pick one that he/she think will be successful and make adjustments later if they face problems. Following are some of the most common discipline methods can be used by teachers in classroom: Assertive Discipline. It was created by Lee Canter. Canter believes that if you catch a student being good by recognizing them when they behave, they will work harder at behaving. He also believes that there should be consistent consequences of breaking the rules that are very clear. During early of the class sessions to begin, the teacher comes up with no more than five rules for the classroom. Each time a rule is broken, a consequence is given. If the misbehavior continues, the consequences get more severe every time. At the same time, students are rewarded for behaving properly. This can range from giving them verbal praises or even things such as sweets or foods. A Primer on Classroom Discipline- An article on this manual has been published by Thomas R. McDaniel. There are eleven techniques that are explained that help you achieve control. The methods are Focusing, Direct Instruction, Monitoring, Modeling, Non-Verbal Cuing, Environmental Control, Low-Profile Intervention, Assertive Discipline, Assertive I-Messages, Humanistic I-Messages, and Positive Discipline. Discipline With Dignity This controversial discipline program, created by Richard L. Curwin and Allen N. Mendler, is based on the premise that students are treated with dignity at all times. It is created to build self-esteem and encourage responsible behavior. Typically a contract is created by both the student and the teacher. The contract includes prevention, action dimension, and resolution. The teachers rules must make sense and be fair. At the same time, prevention is also done by the teachers with preplanning to eliminate possible areas of problems. Most important thing is to make sure students are aware of what is expected from them. The action consists of record keeping and classroom management. Finally the resolution component for the teachers is dealing with the continual rule breaker in the classrooms. But, teachers have to remember that discipline should not interfere with motivation and therefore, the students should be taught responsibility rather than being obedience for their own actions in the classrooms. There are some dicline with this method. It is believed that teacher is ought to protect student dignity and the fact there is no punishment. Students frequently select their own consequences rather than the teachers who decide. Teacher responses to severe discipline problems is unusual. Many believe that this should be the last resort for teachers to be used in classrooms when others have failed. Reality Therapy (RT)- This program was created by William Glasser. The emphasis of this program is to help students connect behavior with consequence. This is done with class meetings, clear rules, and contracts. This also includes Positive Approach to Discipline (PAD), which is based on Reality Therapy. Conclusion In conclusion, sometimes even teachers can actually make the problems occur in classrooms become worse, not the students. Therefore, it is important to consider some of the basic mistakes commonly made when implementing classroom behavior management strategies. For example, a common mistake made by teachers is to define the problem behavior by how it looks without considering its function. Interventions are more likely to be effective when they individually commit one of the problem behavior. Two students with similar looking misbehavior may require entirely different intervention strategies if the behaviors are serving different functions. Another common mistake is for the teacher to become deeply frustrated and feeling negative when an approach is not working towards the students. The teacher may raise his or her voice or increase the level of punishment in an effort to make the approach work. This type of interaction may impair the teacher-student relationship. Instead of allowing this to happen, it is often better to simply try a new approach. To avoid this, teachers should have an effective communication with the students. Communication is the key point here and with good approach and mentality, the students problem behaviors can be catered. By times, the classroom environment can be improved all together, for both teachers and students.
Friday, October 25, 2019
Analysis of Howard Zinns Argument in his Article Dying for the Governm
Analysis of Howard Zinn's Argument in his Article "Dying for the Government" In June of 2003, Howard Zinn’s â€Å"Dying for the Government†was published in â€Å"The Progressive†newspaper. He discusses the government’s claim to military victory in Iraq, and he believes that many innocent people have died for an unjust cause in that war. His claim is that soldiers died for their government, not their country. An important part of his argument is his discussion of democracy, which he says is what our country is supposed to be based on. He also brings up some history of U.S. wars and quotes Mark Twain’s statement about the invasion of the Phillipines by the United States. Even though some of his assertions lack evidence, Zinn uses authority and structure very well to make his argument effective. Some of Zinn’s assertions are a bit sketchy in his essay because there is no evidence that proves them true. One that really stands out is when he writes, â€Å"[they] died for Bush and Cheney and Rumsfeld. And yes, they died for the greed of the oil cartels, for the expansion of the American empire, for the political ambitions of the President. They died to cover up the theft of the nations’ wealth to pay for the machines of death†(159). His argument may seem true to many, but he does not provide us with any evidence that these statements are accurate. He does not say where he got this information, so it may be hard for some to believe this, unless they share the same opinions as him. Another statement he makes is that â€Å"[we] have not been given in the American media (we would need to read the foreign press) a full picture of the human suffering caused by our bombing†(159). This is a very strong assertion, but he does not tell us if he... ...ifth of whom grow up in poverty?†(161). Questions like these make his argument very strong, and they are purposely added towards the end to make the reader consider their own thoughts about them after already having been given information on the topic. It is obvious that he is against the expansion of U.S. power, and he is very passionate in his writing about it. Authority and structure make Zinn’s argument very effective, even though some of his assertions do not have much evidence. Throughout the essay, he makes it very clear how he feels about the government and war. He feels soldiers are dying for their government so the U.S. can gain more power. Towards the end of the essay, he writes, â€Å"[instead] of being feared for our military prowess, we should want to be respected for our dedication to human rights†(161). I could not have said it better myself.
Thursday, October 24, 2019
Trojan Ad
Magazine advertisements spend millions of dollars each year in order to develop ideas to convey their message or to sell their products in today’s society. The many different views and values in society lead to various marketing ideas that capture the attention of many individuals, otherwise known as, the consumers. It is important to remember that the diverse preferences of the audience are taken into consideration when devising a marketing plan that would appeal to a wide range of people. Trojan, a company that focuses on the sale of contraceptives, spends millions of dollars each year to sell their products.In their most current advertising campaign, Trojan is trying to sell their newest brand of condom, Evolve. For this particular campaign, the marketing individuals promoting this product decided to show the differences between men and pigs by implying that men who use Trojan are considered to be true gentlemen while men who do not are regarded as pigs. While it seems that Trojan is suggesting the message of cleanliness by the usage of their condom, nonetheless, they themselves are not â€Å"clean†because of the message that they are conveying.The message behind the Evolve advertisement is to show the perceptions of men when they use or do not use Trojan brand condoms. The message behind this advertisement is to show that if a male uses their brand name condoms, he is considered as a â€Å"clean†and respectable individual, unlike a pig, which is usually associated with â€Å"dirtiness†. The different characters in this campaign reveal the hidden meaning that the use of Trojan brand condoms would not damage or ruin a man’s reputation of being â€Å"honorable†. The setting of the advertisement is placed at a beach, with a rather warm weather; therefore attracting people to its warmness.The attendance of the beach consists of six females, one male, and ten pigs. The females, who are all wearing revealing bathing suit s, are each being prowled by pigs. In the foreground, a female is sitting on a folding chair reading a book entitled, No Time for Swine, whilst on her right side there is a naked pig which seems to be whispering something into her right ear. Also in the foreground, there is a female trying to get a natural tan by lying on a towel on the sand, as a naked pig is taking a photograph of her with his cellular phone.Behind her is another female who is preparing to serve a volleyball, and at the same time being watched by two naked pigs. On the left middle ground of the advertisement is another female and a naked pig squirting sunscreen onto her back. In the background, a naked pig is pursuing after a female in the water. There are several other naked pigs floating and surfing in the water. One other pig is sitting under an umbrella and spying on the females with a pair of binoculars. The expressions on each of the irritated and disgusted faces of the females show that the male pigs are no t welcomed.Finally, in the center of the image, there is a couple, a man and a woman, holding hands and walking on the sand. Their backs are facing toward the audience. The major difference between this couple and all the others is because of the female and male relationship. Below the image are the words: â€Å"Evolve. Use the most trusted name in condoms every time. †followed by the logo name, Trojan ® Brand Condoms. With this representation of their product, what first comes to mind? Most importantly, what is the precise message that Trojan is aiming at the audience with their advertisement?Trojan is portraying society and media in all stereotypes. As will be mentioned, Trojan is revealing the idea and image of a â€Å"perfect†body type. Their view of a perfect and beautiful person is portrayed in their advertisement as tall and skinny. Trojan portrays their consumers as only beautiful, when in fact today’s society consists of all shapes and body sizes. T rojan is promoting the idea that â€Å"sex sells†, by exploiting the women as objects of sexual behaviors, and promoting the idea of sex itself. They assume that their consumers all engage in sexual behaviors and therefore are required to purchase their product.They also assume that once you use their product, the male will gain the trust of the female. However, numerous interpretations can be drawn from this description of their advertisement. Is Trojan aiming to promote the usage of their condom, Evolve? Or are they exploiting women by means of their representation in the advertisement? Are men really â€Å"evolved†after the usage of their product? Each of these questions can be answered with multiple analyses. First of all, the advertisement portrays men as pigs if they do not use Trojan condoms.This can be seen by the representation of only one male versus the ten pigs in the whole of the image. The connotation of the word â€Å"pig†suggests that they are dirty, fat, lazy, perverted, and irresponsible. This is contradictory of the view of â€Å"man†, whom in this advertisement, is portrayed as clean, handsome, masculine, sociable, and responsible. Compared to the pigs, the man is welcomed and accepted by the female. The pleasant and content face of the female suggests that she is comfortable with holding hands with the male and welcomes his presence.The other females in this campaign have a miserable facial expression because they have a â€Å"dirty†, perverted pig prowling next to them and invading their personal space. The word â€Å"swine†from the title of the book, No Time for Swine, refers to stout and short-legged animals such as pigs. The title suggests that the female is not interested in committing her time to that type of person. She is more willing to spend her time with a real man, such as the one on the cover of the book. However, it is instinctual for the viewer to compare and contrast man and pig at first glance.What if the man in the advertisement encompasses the same intentions as the pig? Is it possible to detach the idea of a dirty sexual being to a separate and thoughtful individual? Another observation that can be made about this campaign is the manner in which the marketing individuals represent the women. The purpose of the women is to exploit them for the intention of the objectification of the product. Each female is wearing a revealing bathing suit in order to be used as an object to absorb the viewers in.The woman who is trying to get a tan is in a position that is similar to when one is preparing for sexual intercourse which gives the image of tenderness and readiness. Also, the female seems to be pulling on the knot of her bikini bottom, which gives the impression that she is ready to take them off. The woman who is being squirted with lotion by another pig also gives the impression of a sexual act, such as ejaculation. The facial expression that is being displ ayed on her face tells us that what the pig is doing is considered as revolting and unwanted.This represents a male who has discharged on a female when he did not use a condom; therefore the male is unable to protect her and is considered to be a pig instead of a man. The women epitomize the idea of safe sex. From previous observations, the women are discontent with the beings around them. The females do not trust the pigs because the pigs are not â€Å"safe†. In this case, not being safe means not using their condom. This brings in the question of the trustfulness of man and the product itself. A man who chooses to use a condom shows that he can be trusted and is believed to be responsible.The words that appear on this advertisement: â€Å"Evolve. Use the most trusted name in condoms every time. †is declaring a statement that if an individual uses condom, Evolve by Trojan, then he will be â€Å"evolved†from a pig to a man and is â€Å"trusted†. This in fers that if you use the trusted name brand of condoms then women would be willing to entrust them with themselves. The thought that they will be safe and unharmed from any type of sexually transmitted diseases makes the woman feel protected. However, the representation of the advertisement comes into question.If their product is â€Å"most trusted†, what is the validity in their product when they portray women and men in such a manner? As it can be seen in the advertisement, the women and man portrayed here are all considered to be beautiful, according to today’s standards. All of the females and male have approximately the same body shape and type, tall and skinny. Although the initial impression of the advertisement asserts the idea of becoming a beautiful being, Trojan also seems to be only marketing to a certain type of people. This conveys a message to the viewers that only people who are beautiful are allowed to use this product.Men, who are stout-like and short , as conveyed through the pigs, are not considered as real men who do use condoms. Consequently, this advertisement exposes the idea of body image: only beautiful people use the Trojan condoms. If Trojan portrays man as an animal, then it shows the implication that Trojan themselves have not yet â€Å"evolved†from their ideas. If they are able to come up with ideas such as these to convey to the audience, it shows that they have not yet evolved from being a â€Å"thoughtless seller†to a more evolved â€Å"inventor†to capture the attention of their consumers.Their idea of marketing to the audience is by using the theme of â€Å"sex sells†. If we are able to transform from such implications and move on to new ideas that better portrays society, then we are able to evolve into a new level. Every day, many industries are trying to develop new ideas to convey their messages or to sell their products to the consumers in the market. Some of these advertisemen ts are sold to numerous magazines and television stations. Whoever the viewers may be, they all range from different ages, cultures, and body types.In order for a company to be considered as â€Å"evolved†, such as understanding their own view and also the consumer’s view, they first have to discover their reasons as to why and whom they are portraying their message to. They have to first realize that their promotion will not be judged on a first look, but also pertaining to its hidden significance. If they claim their product is a certain way, such as Trojan has claimed, then they should be responsible to uphold their reputation as a well as to how they have portrayed their advertisement as a whole.
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
Evolution of Management Theory
ABSTRACT In this paper, we examine how management theory concerning appropriate management practices has evolved in modern times, and look at the central concerns that have guided its development. First, we examine the so-called classical management theories that emerged around the turn of the twentieth century. These include scientific management, which focuses on matching people and tasks to maximize efficiency; and administrative management, which focuses on identifying the principles that will lead to the creation of the most efficient system of organization and management.Next, we consider behavioural management theories, developed both before and after the Second World War, which focus on how managers should lead and control their workforces to increase performance. Then we discuss management science theory, which developed during the Second World War and which has become increasingly important as researchers have developed rigorous analytical and quantitative techniques to hel p managers measure and control organizational performance.Finally, we discuss business in the 1960s and 1970s and focus on the theories that were developed to help explain how the external environment affects the way organizations and managers operate. By the end of this chapter, one would understand the ways in which Management Theory has evolved over time. You will also understand how economic, political, and cultural forces have affected the development of these theories and the ways in which managers and their organizations behave. INTRODUCTIONChanges in management practices occur as managers, theorists, researchers, and consultants seek new ways to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The driving force behind the evolution of management theory is the search for better ways to utilize organizational resources. Advances in management theory typically occur as managers and researchers find better ways to perform the principal management tasks: planning, organizing , leading, and controlling human and other organizational resources.The evolution of modern management began in the closing decades of the nineteenth century, after the industrial revolution had swept through Europe, Canada, and the United States. In the new economic climate, managers of all types of organizationsâ€â€political, educational, and economicâ€â€were increasingly trying to find better ways to satisfy customers’ needs. Many major economic, technical, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. The introduction of steam power and the development of sophisticated machinery and equipment changed the way in which goods were produced, particularly in the weaving and clothing industries.Small workshops run by skilled workers who produced hand-manufactured products (a system called crafts production) were being replaced by large factories in which sophisticated machines controlled by hundreds or even thousands of unskilled or semiskilled workers made produ cts. Owners and managers of the new factories found themselves unprepared for the challenges accompanying the change from small-scale crafts production to large-scale mechanized manufacturing.Many of the managers and supervisors had only a technical orientation, and were unprepared for the social problems that occur when people work together in large groups (as in a factory or shop system). Managers began to search for new techniques to manage their organizations’ resources, and soon they began to focus on ways to increase the efficiency of the worker–task mix. CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT THEORIES One of the first schools of management thought, the classical management theory, developed during the Industrial Revolution when new problems related to the factory system began to appear.Managers were unsure of how to train employees (many of them non-English speaking immigrants) or deal with increased labor dissatisfaction, so they began to test solutions. As a result, the classic al management theory developed from efforts to find the â€Å"one best way†to perform and manage tasks. This school of thought is made up of two branches: scientific and administrative management, described in the following sections: Scientific Management Scientific Management arose because of the need to increase productivity and efficiency.The emphasis was on trying to find the best way to get the most work done by examining how the work process was actually accomplished and by scrutinizing the skills of the workforce. The classical scientific school owes its roots to several major contributors, including Frederick Taylor, Henry Gantt, and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. Frederick Taylor is often called the â€Å"father of scientific management. †Taylor believed that organizations should study tasks and develop precise procedures. Also, he developed an incentive system that paid workers more money for meeting the new standard.As a result, many theorists followed Taylor 's philosophy when developing their own principles of management. Henry Gantt, an associate of Taylor's, developed the Gantt chart, a bar graph that measures planned and completed work along each stage of production. Based on time instead of quantity, volume, or weight, this visual display chart has been a widely used planning and control tool since its development in 1910. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, a husband-and-wife team, studied job motions. In Frank's early career as an apprentice bricklayer, he was interested in standardization and method study.He watched bricklayers and saw that some workers were slow and inefficient, while others were very productive. He discovered that each bricklayer used a different set of motions to lay bricks. From his observations, Frank isolated the basic movements necessary to do the job and eliminated unnecessary motions. Workers using these movements raised their output from 1,000 to 2,700 bricks per day. This was the first motion study designed t o isolate the best possible method of performing a given job. Later, Frank and his wife Lillian studied job motions using a motion-picture camera and a split-second clock.When her husband died at the age of 56, Lillian continued their work. Thanks to these contributors and others, the basic ideas regarding scientific management developed. They include the following: †¢ Developing new standard methods for doing each job †¢ Selecting, training, and developing workers instead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and train themselves †¢ Developing a spirit of cooperation between workers and management to ensure that work is carried out in accordance with devised procedures †¢ Dividing work between orkers and management in almost equal shares, with each group taking over the work for which it is best fitted Administrative Management Whereas scientific management focused on the productivity of individuals, the classical administrative approach concentrates on the total organization. The emphasis is on the development of managerial principles rather than work methods. Contributors to this school of thought include Max Weber, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester I. Barnard. These theorists studied the flow of information within an organization and emphasized the importance of understanding how an organization operated.In the late 1800s, Max Weber disliked that many European organizations were managed on a â€Å"personal†family-like basis and that employees were loyal to individual supervisors rather than to the organization. He believed that organizations should be managed impersonally and that a formal organizational structure, where specific rules were followed, was important. In other words, he didn't think that authority should be based on a person's personality. He thought authority should be something that was part of a person's job and passed from individual to individual as one person left and another took over.This n on-personal, objective form of organization was called a bureaucracy. Weber believed that all bureaucracies have the following characteristics: †¢ A well-defined hierarchy †¢ Division of labor and specialization †¢ Rules and regulations. †¢ Impersonal relationships between managers and employees. †¢ Competence. †¢ Records. Henri Fayol, a French mining engineer, developed 14 principles of management based on his management experiences. These principles provide modern-day managers with general guidelines on how a supervisor should organize her department and manage her staff.Although later research has created controversy over many of the following principles, they are still widely used in management theories. They are: †¢ Division of work †¢ Authority and responsibility †¢ Discipline †¢ Unity of command †¢ Unity of direction †¢ Subordination of individual interest to general interest †¢ Remuneration of personnel †¢ Centralization †¢ Scalar chain †¢ Order †¢ Equity †¢ Stability of tenure of personnel †¢ Initiative †¢ Esprit de corps Mary Parker Follett stressed the importance of an organization establishing common goals for its employees.However, she also began to think somewhat differently than the other theorists of her day, discarding command-style hierarchical organizations where employees were treated like robots. She began to talk about such things as ethics, power, and leadership. She encouraged managers to allow employees to participate in decision making. She stressed the importance of people rather than techniques  a concept very much before her time. As a result, she was a pioneer and often not taken seriously by management scholars of her time. But times change and innovative ideas from the past suddenly take on new meanings.Much of what managers do today is based on the fundamentals that Follett established more than 80 years ago. Chester Barn ard, who was president of New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, introduced the idea of the informal organization  cliques (exclusive groups of people) that naturally form within a company. He felt that these informal organizations provided necessary and vital communication functions for the overall organization and that they could help the organization accomplish its goals. Barnard felt that it was particularly important for managers to develop a sense of common purpose where a willingness to cooperate is strongly encouraged.He is credited with developing the acceptance theory of management, which emphasizes the willingness of employees to accept that managers have legitimate authority to act. Barnard felt that four factors affected the willingness of employees to accept authority: †¢ The employees must understand the communication. †¢ The employees accept the communication as being consistent with the organization's purposes. †¢ The employees feel that their act ions will be consistent with the needs and desires of the other employees. †¢ The employees feel that they are mentally and physically able to carry out the order.Barnard's sympathy for and understanding of employee needs positioned him as a bridge to the behavioral school of management, the next school of thought to emerge. Behavioral Management Theory As management research continued in the 20th century, questions began to come up regarding the interactions and motivations of the individual within organizations. Management principles developed during the classical period were simply not useful in dealing with many management situations and could not explain the behavior of individual employees. In short, classical theory ignored employee motivation and behavior.As a result, the behavioral school was a natural outgrowth of this revolutionary management experiment. The behavioral management theory is often called the human relations movement because it addresses the human dimension of work. Behavioral theorists believed that a better understanding of human behavior at work, such as motivation, conflict, expectations, and group dynamics, improved productivity. The theorists who contributed to this school viewed employees as individuals, resources, and assets to be developed and worked with  not as machines, as in the past.Several individuals and experiments contributed to this theory. Elton Mayo's contributions came as part of the Hawthorne studies, a series of experiments that rigorously applied classical management theory only to reveal its shortcomings. The Hawthorne experiments consisted of two studies conducted at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago from 1924 to 1932. The first study was conducted by a group of engineers seeking to determine the relationship of lighting levels to worker productivity.Surprisingly enough, they discovered that worker productivity increased as the lighting levels decreased  that is, until the employees were unable to see what they were doing, after which performance naturally declined. A few years later, a second group of experiments began. Harvard researchers Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger supervised a group of five women in a bank wiring room. They gave the women special privileges, such as the right to leave their workstations without permission, take rest periods, enjoy free lunches, and have variations in pay levels and workdays.This experiment also resulted in significantly increased rates of productivity. In this case, Mayo and Roethlisberger concluded that the increase in productivity resulted from the supervisory arrangement rather than the changes in lighting or other associated worker benefits. Because the experimenters became the primary supervisors of the employees, the intense interest they displayed for the workers was the basis for the increased motivation and resulting productivity. Essentially, the experimenters became a part of the study and influenced its outcome.This is the origin of the term Hawthorne effect, which describes the special attention researchers give to a study's subjects and the impact that attention has on the study's findings. The general conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that human relations and the social needs of workers are crucial aspects of business management. This principle of human motivation helped revolutionize theories and practices of management. Abraham Maslow, a practicing psychologist, developed one of the most widely recognized need theories, a theory of motivation based upon a consideration of human needs.His theory of human needs had three assumptions: †¢ Human needs are never completely satisfied. †¢ Human behavior is purposeful and is motivated by the need for satisfaction. †¢ Needs can be classified according to a hierarchical structure of importance, from the lowest to highest. Maslow broke down the needs hierarchy into fiv e specific areas: †¢ Physiological needs. Maslow grouped all physical needs necessary for maintaining basic human well-being, such as food and drink, into this category. After the need is satisfied, however, it is no longer is a motivator. †¢ Safety needs.These needs include the need for basic security, stability, protection, and freedom from fear. A normal state exists for an individual to have all these needs generally satisfied. Otherwise, they become primary motivators. †¢ Belonging and love needs. After the physical and safety needs are satisfied and are no longer motivators, the need for belonging and love emerges as a primary motivator. The individual strives to establish meaningful relationships with significant others. †¢ Esteem needs. An individual must develop self-confidence and wants to achieve status, reputation, fame, and glory. Self-actualization needs. Assuming that all the previous needs in the hierarchy are satisfied, an individual feels a need to find himself. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory helped managers visualize employee motivation. Douglas McGregor was heavily influenced by both the Hawthorne studies and Maslow. He believed that two basic kinds of managers exist. One type, the Theory X manager, has a negative view of employees and assumes that they are lazy, untrustworthy, and incapable of assuming responsibility.On the other hand, the Theory Y manager assumes that employees are not only trustworthy and capable of assuming responsibility, but also have high levels of motivation. An important aspect of McGregor's idea was his belief that managers who hold either set of assumptions can create self-fulfilling prophecies  that through their behavior, these managers create situations where subordinates act in ways that confirm the manager's original expectations. As a group, these theorists discovered that people worked for inner satisfaction and not materialistic rewards, shifting the focus to the r ole of individuals in an organization's performance.Management Science Theory Management science theory is a contemporary approach to management that focuses on the use of rigorous quantitative techniques to help managers make maximum use of organizational resources to produce goods and services. In essence, management science theory is a contemporary extension of scientific management, which, as developed by Taylor, also took a quantitative approach to measuring the worker–task mix in order to raise efficiency.There are many branches of management science; each of them deals with a specific set of concerns: †¢ Quantitative management utilizes mathematical techniquesâ€â€such as linear and nonlinear programming, modelling, simulation, queuing theory, and chaos theoryâ€â€to help managers decide, for example, how much inventory to hold at different times of the year, where to locate a new factory, and how best to invest an organization’s financial capital. â € ¢ Operations management (or operations research) provides managers with a set of techniques that they can use to analyze any aspect of an organization’s production system to increase efficiency. Total quality management (TQM) focuses on analyzing an organization’s input, conversion, and output activities to increase product quality. †¢ Management information systems (MIS) help managers design information systems that provide information about events occurring inside the organization as well as in its external environmentâ€â€information that is vital for effective decision making. All these subfields of management science provide tools and techniques that managers can use to help improve the quality of their decision making and increase efficiency and effectiveness.Organizational Environment Theory An important milestone in the history of management thought occurred when researchers went beyond the study of how managers can influence behavior within organiz ations to consider how managers control the organization’s relationship with its external environment, or organizational environmentâ€â€the set of forces and conditions that operate beyond an organization’s boundaries but affect a manager’s ability to acquire and utilize resources.Resources in the organizational environment include the raw materials and skilled people that an organization requires to produce goods and services, as well as the support of groups including customers who buy these goods and services and provide the organization with financial resources. One way of determining the relative success of an organization is to consider how effective its managers are at obtaining scarce and valuable resources. The importance of studying the environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s Contingency TheoryAnother milestone in management theory was the development of contingency theory in the 1960s by Tom Burns and G. M. Stalker in the United Kingdom and Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch in the United States. 39 The crucial message of contingency theory is that there is no one best way to organize: The organizational structures and the control systems that managers choose depend onâ€â€are contingent onâ€â€characteristics of the external environment in which the organization operates. According to contingency theory, the characteristics of the environment affect an organization’s ability to obtain resources.To maximize the likelihood of gaining access to resources, managers must allow an organization’s departments to organize and control their activities in ways most likely to allow them to obtain resources, given the constraints of the particular environment they face. In other words, how managers design the organizational hierarchy, choose a control system, and lead and motivate their employees is contingent on the characteristics of the organizational environment. CONCLUSION The search for efficiency started with the study of how managers could improve person–task relationships to increase efficiency.The concept of job specialization and division of labour remains the basis for the design of work settings in modern organizations. New developments like lean production and total quality management are often viewed as advances on the early scientific management principles developed by Taylor and the Gilbreths. Max Weber and Henri Fayol outlined principles of bureaucracy and administration that are as relevant to managers today as when they were written at the turn of the twentieth century. Much of modern management research refines these principles to suit contemporary conditions.For example, the increasing interest in the use of cross-departmental teams and the empowerment of workers are issues that managers also faced a century ago. Researchers have described many different approaches to managerial behaviour, including The ories X and Y. Often, the managerial behaviour that researchers suggest reflects the context of their own historical era and culture. Mary Parker Follett advocated managerial behaviours that did not reflect accepted modes of managerial behaviour at the time, but her work was largely ignored until conditions changed.The various branches of management science theory provide rigorous quantitative techniques that give managers more control over their organization’s use of resources to produce goods and services. The importance of studying the organization’s external environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s. A main focus of contemporary management research is to find methods to help managers improve the way they utilize organizational resources and compete successfully in the global environment.Strategic management and total quality management are two important approaches intended to help managers make bet ter use of organizational resources. REFERENCES CliffsNotes. com, (2013). Classical Schools of Management. http://www. cliffsnotes. com/study_guide/topicArticleId-8944,articleId-8851. html. David Sibbet, (1997). 75 Years of Management Ideas and Practice. Supplement, Harvard Business Review, Reprint number 97500. David Stauffer, (2011). An Overview of Management Theories. http://www. ernsanalysis. com/sjsu/ise250/history. htm James Swartz, (1994). Evolution of Management Thought. Productivity Press, Portland OR Lyndsay Swinton, (2010). Frederick W. Taylor: Master of Scientific Management. http://www. skymark. com/resources/leaders/taylor. asp M. Bosman, (2010). Historical Evolution of Management Theory. http://www. scribd. com/doc/37785213/Evolution-of-Management-Theory Prof. M. Thenmozhi, (2007). EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THEORY. Indian Institute of Technology, Madras.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)